ENHANCING EARTHQUAKE RESILIENCE IN TRADITIONAL BUILDING STRUCTURAL VULNERABILITYANALYSIS By INTEGRATING FIELD SURVEY

Abstract

Traditional construction practices such as dry-stone masonry and timber- newlinelaced stone systems remain widespread across the seismically active Himalayan newlineregions of Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Kashmir. These vernacular newlinemethods, developed over generations using local materials, are still prevalent due to newlinetheir cost-effectiveness and cultural familiarity. However, in the face of frequent newlineseismic activity, their structural safety is increasingly under scrutiny, especially newlinegiven the lack of engineered detailing and formal design standards. newlineThis study undertakes a detailed investigation into the seismic vulnerabilities of newlinethese building typologies through extensive field surveys, documentation of newlineconstruction features, and structural assessments. Timber-laced systems demonstrated newlineinherent resilience due to elements like horizontal tie beams and reduced upper-storey newlinemass, while common deficiencies included flexible diaphragms, poor wall anchorage, newlineand out-of-plane wall failures. In unmortared dry-stone buildings, particularly in newlineKashmir and Sikkim, seismic risk was found to be amplified by the irregular stone newlinegeometry, absence of mortar, and lack of through-stones. newlineTo evaluate their structural behavior, representative models of dry-stone newlinebuildings were analyzed using RFEM software. Modal analysis revealed stress newlineconcentrations around openings and deformation zones vulnerable under seismic newlineloads. Based on the combined insights from field observations and numerical newlineanalysis, a set of context-sensitive seismic strengthening strategies was developed. newlineThese included timber bracing, lightweight roofing, plank flooring, and CFRP newlineapplication designed to improve resilience while respecting traditional construction newlinelogic. All retrofit measures were illustrated using detailed sketches prepared in newlineInkscape for field-level applicability. newline